Impact of Rainwater Harvesting on Livelihood Outcomes in Northern Ghana
Keywords:
Livelihood outcomes, Rainwater harvesting, Climate-smart agricultural practices, Sustainable productivity, Poverty reduction
Abstract
At the heart of the global community, the commitment to end hunger, poverty, and malnutrition at all levels remains a dominant target. This remains a difficult task without improved livelihoods. However, improved livelihoods largely depend on climate-smart agricultural practices (CSAPs) that draw together sustainable productivity, resilience, and emissions reductions under one umbrella. Yet, empirical information focusing on how CSAPs affect livelihoods remains scanty despite its policy relevance. In this study, the perceived benefits, adoption, and effects of rainwater harvesting (RWH) - one of the CSAPs - on livelihood outcomes in northern Ghana are examined using a dataset from the Ghana Agricultural Production Survey. The results revealed diverse perceptions as the farmers associate RWH with production increase (68.4%), reduction of drought effects (36.6%), seasonal crop failure (24.6%), erosion from runoff (24.0%), and quantity of inputs used (13.1%) and thus, indicate the underlying reason behind the adoption of water harvesting as CSAPs. Further, the results revealed farm size, labour, gender of farmer, level of education, credit access, membership to FBO, extension access, tenure security, number of irrigation sites accessible to the farmer, soil type, and farmer’s perception as the main factors influencing the uptake of RWH in northern Ghana. Concerning the livelihood effects of adoption, RWH was found to improve yields and food security. It is therefore recommended that CSAPs including RWH techniques should remain a policy focus in drought-prone areas of Ghana. Government can focus on developing or improving existing infrastructure for rainwater harvesting in these areas
References
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Abdallah, A. H., Abdul-Rahaman, A., & Issahaku, G. (2021). Sustainable agricultural practices, farm income and food security among rural households in Africa. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 23(12), 17668–17701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01407-y
Abdulai, A., & Huffman, W. (2014). The Adoption and Impact of Soil and Water Conservation Technology: An Endogenous Switching Regression Application. Land Economics, 90(1), 26–43.
Abdulai, A. N. (2016a). Impact of conservation agriculture technology on household welfare in Zambia. Agricultural Economics (United Kingdom), 47(6), 729–741. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12269
Abu, B. M., Issahaku, H., & Nkegbe, P. K. (2016). Farmgate versus market centre sales: a multi-crop approach. Agricultural and Food Economics, 4(1), 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-016-0065-6
Arslan, A., Mccarthy, N., Lipper, L., Asfaw, S., Cattaneo, A., & Kokwe, M. (2015). Climate Smart Agriculture? Assessing the Adaptation Implications in Zambia. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 66(3), 753–780. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-9552.12107
Asfaw, S., Mccarthy, N., Lipper, L., Arslan, A., Cattaneo, A., & Kachulu, M. (2014). Climate variability , adaptation strategies and food security in Malawi ESA Working Paper No . 14-08. ESA Working Paper No. 14-08., 14.
Asfaw, S., Shiferaw, B., Simtowe, F., & Hagos, M. (2011). Agricultural technology adoption, seed access constraints and commercialization in Ethiopia. Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics, 3(9), 436–447.
Bagley, J. E., Miller, J., & Bernacchi, C. J. (2015). Biophysical impacts of climate-smart agriculture in the Midwest United States. Plant, Cell and Environment, 38(9), 1913–1930. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.12485
Bekele Shiferaw, Menale Kassie, M. J. & C. Y. (2014). Adoption of improved wheat varieties and impacts on household food security in Ethiopia. Food Policy, October 2015, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2013.09.012
Binswanger, H. P., Khandker, S. R., & Rosenzweig, M. R. (1993). How infrastructure and financial institutions affect agricultural output and investment in India. Journal of Development Economics, 41(2), 337–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3878(93)90062-R
Bjornlund, V., Bjornlund, H., & Van Rooyen, A. F. (2020). Why agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa remains low compared to the rest of the world–a historical perspective. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 36(sup1), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2020.1739512
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Cooperation, I. (2016). Research Center on International Cooperation of the University of Bergamo Giordano Dell-Amore Foundation ACCESS TO CREDIT AND ITS EFFECT ON THE ADOPTION OF AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES : THE CASE OF ZANZIBAR Author ( s ): Khalid S . Mohamed and Andrew E . Te.
Djurfeldt, G., Aryeetey, E., & Isinika, A. C. (2010). African Smallholders: Food Crops, Markets and Policy (G. Djurfeldt, E. Aryeetey, & A. C. Isinika (eds.); 1st ed.). CAB International CABI. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781845937164.0000
Domènech, L., Heijnen, H., & Saurí, D. (2012). Rainwater harvesting for human consumption and livelihood improvement in rural Nepal: Benefits and risks. Water and Environment Journal, 26(4), 465–472. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.2011.00305.x
Essegbey, G. O., Nutsukpo, D., Karbo, N., & Zougmoré, R. (2015). National Climate-Smart Agriculture and Food Security Action Plan of Ghana (2016-2020) (No. 139; Issue 139). https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/69000/CCAFS_WP139_CSA_Ghana_nov.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y
FAO. (2008). Report on use of the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale and Household Dietary Diversity Score in two survey rounds in Manica and Sofala Provinces, Mozambique, 2006-2007. FAO food security project GCP/MOZ/079/BEL (Vols. 2006-2007,).
FAO. (2010). “Climate-Smart” Agriculture. The Hague Conference on Agriculture, Food Security and Climate Change, 41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6346.2009.02662.x
FAO. (2023). International fora | Climate-Smart Agriculture | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAO. https://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture/international-fora/en/
FAO, ECA, & AUC. (2020). Africa Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition 2019: Containing the Damage of Economic Slowdowns and Downturns to Food Insecurity in Africa. FAO, AU & UN. https:/doi.org/10.4060/CA7343EN
Feder, G., & Onchan, T. (1987). Land Ownership Security and Farm Investment in Thailand. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 69(2), 311–320.
GACSA. (2016). Compendium on Climate-Smart Agriculture & Extension. In Supporting agricultural extension towards Climate-Smart Agriculture An overview of existing tools (pp. 1–87). Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture. www.fao.org/gacsa/en/
Ghana Statistical Service. (2014). Ghana Living Standards Survey Round 6: Main Report.
Ghana Statistical Service. (2019). Nation Report: 207/2018 Ghana Census of Agriculture.
Goldstein, M. (2008). The Profits of Power : Land Rights and Agricultural Investment in Ghana Christopher Udry. 116(6).
Harvey, C. A., Chacón, M., Donatti, C. I., Garen, E., Hannah, L., Andrade, A., Bede, L., Brown, D., Calle, A., Chará, J., Clement, C., Gray, E., Hoang, M. H., Minang, P., Rodríguez, A. M., Seeberg-Elverfeldt, C., Semroc, B., Shames, S., Smukler, S., … Wollenberg, E. (2014). Climate-Smart Landscapes: Opportunities and Challenges for Integrating Adaptation and Mitigation in Tropical Agriculture. Conservation Letters, 7(2), 77–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12066
Issahaku, G., & Abdulai, A. (2019a). Adoption of climate-smart practices and its impact on farm performance and risk exposure among smallholder farmers in Ghana. Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8489.12357
Issahaku, G., & Abdulai, A. (2019b). Can Farm Households Improve Food and Nutrition Security through Adoption of Climate-smart Practices? Empirical Evidence from Northern Ghana. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/aepp/ppz002
Jolly, C. M., & Gadbois, M. (1996). The effect of animal traction on labour productivity and food self-sufficiency: The case of Mali. Agricultural Systems, 51(4), 453–467.
Kleemann, L., Abdulai, A., Mareike, B. (2014). Is Organic Farming Worth its Investment? The Adoption and Impact of Certified Pineapple Farming in Ghana. World Development, 64(1856), 79–92.
Kousar, R., Abdulai, A., & Society, A. E. (2014). Impact of non-farm work and land tenancy contracts on soil conservation measures Impact of non-farm work and land tenancy contracts on soil conservation measures. April. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.4505.9842
Ma, W., & Abdulai, A. (2016). Does cooperative membership improve household welfare? Evidence from apple farmers in China. Food Policy, 58(January), 94–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.12.002
Makate, C., Wang, R., Makate, M., & Mango, N. (2016). Crop diversification and livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe: adaptive management for environmental change. SpringerPlus, 5(1), 1–18.
Manda, J., Alene, A. D., Gardebroek, C., Kassie, M., & Tembo, G. (2016). Adoption and Impacts of Sustainable Agricultural Practices on Maize Yields and Incomes: Evidence from Rural Zambia. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 67(1), 130–153.
Manfred Zeller, Aliou Diagne, and C. M. (2001). Market access by smallholder farmers in Malawi: Implication for technology adoption in agricultural productivity and crop income. Journal of Agricultural Science, 19(35), 219–229.
Mango, N., Zamasiya, B., Makate, C., Nyikahadzoi, K., & Siziba, S. (2014). Factors influencing household food security among smallholder farmers in the Mudzi district of Zimbabwe. Development Southern Africa, 31(4), 625–640.
Maxwell, D., Vaitla, B., & Coates, J. (2014). How do indicators of household food insecurity measure up? An empirical comparison from Ethiopia. Food Policy, 47(4), 107–116.
Owusu, V., Abdulai, A., & Abdul-Rahman, S. (2011). Non-farm work and food security among farm households in Northern Ghana. Food Policy, 36(2), 108–118.
Pender, J. L., & Kerr, J. M. (1998). Determinants of farmers ’ indigenous soil and water conservation investments in semi -arid India. 19, 113–125.
Roodman, D. (2009). Working Paper Number 168 April 2009. 168.
Scharlemann, J. P. W., Brock, R. C., Balfour, N., Brown, C., Burgess, N. D., Guth, M. K., Ingram, D. J., Lane, R., Martin, J. G. C., Wicander, S., & Kapos, V. (2020). Towards understanding interactions between Sustainable Development Goals: the role of environment–human linkages. Sustainability Science, 15(6), 1573–1584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-020-00799-6
Shete, M., & Rutten, M. (2015). Impacts of large-scale farming on local communities ’ food security and income levels – Empirical evidence from Oromia Region , Ethiopia. Land Use Policy, 47(1), 282–292.
Sikka, A. K., Islam, A., & Rao, K. V. (2017). Climate-Smart Land and Water Management for Sustainable Agriculture. Irrigation and Drainage. https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2162
Simtowe, F., & Zeller, M. (2006). The Impact of Access to Credit on the Adoption of hybrid maize in Malawi: An Empirical Test of an Agricultural Household Model under credit market failure. January 2008.
Smith, L. C., & Wiesmann, D. (2007). Is Food Insecurity More Severe in South Asia or Sub-Saharan Africa ? August.
Solís, D., Bravo-Ureta, B. E., & Quiroga, R. E. (2009). Technical efficiency among peasant farmers participating in natural resource management programmes in Central America. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 60(1), 202–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-9552.2008.00173.x
Stamoulis, K., & Zezza, A. (2003). A Conceptual Framework for National Agricultural , Rural Development , and Food Security Strategies. ESA Working Paper, 03.
Teklewold, H., Gebrehiwot, T., & Bezabih, M. (2019). Climate smart agricultural practices and gender differentiated nutrition outcome : An empirical evidence from Ethiopia. World Development, 122, 38–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.05.010
Teklewold, H., Kassie, M., & Shiferaw, B. (2013). Adoption of multiple sustainable agricultural practices in rural Ethiopia. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 64(3), 597–623.
Tesfaye, W., Tirivayi, N., Blalock, G., Bageant, L., Boone, C., Mcbride, L., Mulu, Y., Gebremariam, G., Zewdie, T., Yitbarek, E., Kebede, K., Mccullough, E., Mali-, E., & Lybbert, T. (2020). Climate-Smart Innovations and Rural Poverty in Ethiopia: Exploring Impacts and Pathways. 00(00), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajae.12161
Thomson, A., & Metz, M. (1998). Implications of Economic Policy for Food Security: A Training Manual. Training Materials for Agricultural Planning 40. http://www.fao.org/3/X3936E/X3936E03.htm#self
Way, D. a, & Long, S. P. (2015). Climate-smart agriculture and forestry : maintaining plant productivity in a changing world while minimizing. Plant Cell and Environment, 38, 1683–1685. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce
WFP. (2009). Emergency Food Security Assessment Handbook. WFP, Rome, 296. https://doi.org/http://www.wfp.org/content/emergency-food-security-assessment-handbook
Zero Hunger Challenge. (2016). Partnering for Nourishing our People, Nurturing our Planet, Growing Prosperity, Harvesting Peace Transforming our Food Systems to Transform our World Background. Zero Hunger Challenge, 2(6), 1–5.
Abdallah, A.-H., Michael, A., & Awuni, J. A. (2022). Impact of land grabbing on food security: evidence from Ghana. Environment, Development and Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02294-7
Abdallah, A. (2016a). Agricultural credit and technical efficiency in Ghana : is there a nexus ? Agricultural Finance Review, 76(2), 309–324. https://doi.org/10.1108/AFR-01-2016-0002
Abdallah, A. (2016b). Does credit market inefficiency affect technology adoption ? Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural Finance Review, 76(4), 494–511. https://doi.org/10.1108/AFR-05-2016-0052
Abdallah, A. H., Abdul-Rahaman, A., & Issahaku, G. (2021). Sustainable agricultural practices, farm income and food security among rural households in Africa. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 23(12), 17668–17701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01407-y
Abdulai, A., & Huffman, W. (2014). The Adoption and Impact of Soil and Water Conservation Technology: An Endogenous Switching Regression Application. Land Economics, 90(1), 26–43.
Abdulai, A. N. (2016a). Impact of conservation agriculture technology on household welfare in Zambia. Agricultural Economics (United Kingdom), 47(6), 729–741. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12269
Abu, B. M., Issahaku, H., & Nkegbe, P. K. (2016). Farmgate versus market centre sales: a multi-crop approach. Agricultural and Food Economics, 4(1), 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-016-0065-6
Arslan, A., Mccarthy, N., Lipper, L., Asfaw, S., Cattaneo, A., & Kokwe, M. (2015). Climate Smart Agriculture? Assessing the Adaptation Implications in Zambia. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 66(3), 753–780. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-9552.12107
Asfaw, S., Mccarthy, N., Lipper, L., Arslan, A., Cattaneo, A., & Kachulu, M. (2014). Climate variability , adaptation strategies and food security in Malawi ESA Working Paper No . 14-08. ESA Working Paper No. 14-08., 14.
Asfaw, S., Shiferaw, B., Simtowe, F., & Hagos, M. (2011). Agricultural technology adoption, seed access constraints and commercialization in Ethiopia. Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics, 3(9), 436–447.
Bagley, J. E., Miller, J., & Bernacchi, C. J. (2015). Biophysical impacts of climate-smart agriculture in the Midwest United States. Plant, Cell and Environment, 38(9), 1913–1930. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.12485
Bekele Shiferaw, Menale Kassie, M. J. & C. Y. (2014). Adoption of improved wheat varieties and impacts on household food security in Ethiopia. Food Policy, October 2015, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2013.09.012
Binswanger, H. P., Khandker, S. R., & Rosenzweig, M. R. (1993). How infrastructure and financial institutions affect agricultural output and investment in India. Journal of Development Economics, 41(2), 337–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3878(93)90062-R
Bjornlund, V., Bjornlund, H., & Van Rooyen, A. F. (2020). Why agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa remains low compared to the rest of the world–a historical perspective. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 36(sup1), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2020.1739512
Brooks, J. (2016). Food security and the Sustainable Development Goals. In P. Love (Ed.), Debate the Issues: New Approaches to Economic Challenges (pp. 143–146). OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264264687-27-en
Buchner, B., Clark, A., Falconer, A., Macquarie, R., Tle, C. M.-, Tolentino, R., & Wetherbee, C. (2019). Global Landscape of Climate Finance 2019 (Issue November). https://climatepolicyinitiative.org/publication/ global-climate-finance-2019/
Cooperation, I. (2016). Research Center on International Cooperation of the University of Bergamo Giordano Dell-Amore Foundation ACCESS TO CREDIT AND ITS EFFECT ON THE ADOPTION OF AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES : THE CASE OF ZANZIBAR Author ( s ): Khalid S . Mohamed and Andrew E . Te.
Djurfeldt, G., Aryeetey, E., & Isinika, A. C. (2010). African Smallholders: Food Crops, Markets and Policy (G. Djurfeldt, E. Aryeetey, & A. C. Isinika (eds.); 1st ed.). CAB International CABI. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781845937164.0000
Domènech, L., Heijnen, H., & Saurí, D. (2012). Rainwater harvesting for human consumption and livelihood improvement in rural Nepal: Benefits and risks. Water and Environment Journal, 26(4), 465–472. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.2011.00305.x
Essegbey, G. O., Nutsukpo, D., Karbo, N., & Zougmoré, R. (2015). National Climate-Smart Agriculture and Food Security Action Plan of Ghana (2016-2020) (No. 139; Issue 139). https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/69000/CCAFS_WP139_CSA_Ghana_nov.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y
FAO. (2008). Report on use of the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale and Household Dietary Diversity Score in two survey rounds in Manica and Sofala Provinces, Mozambique, 2006-2007. FAO food security project GCP/MOZ/079/BEL (Vols. 2006-2007,).
FAO. (2010). “Climate-Smart” Agriculture. The Hague Conference on Agriculture, Food Security and Climate Change, 41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6346.2009.02662.x
FAO. (2023). International fora | Climate-Smart Agriculture | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAO. https://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture/international-fora/en/
FAO, ECA, & AUC. (2020). Africa Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition 2019: Containing the Damage of Economic Slowdowns and Downturns to Food Insecurity in Africa. FAO, AU & UN. https:/doi.org/10.4060/CA7343EN
Feder, G., & Onchan, T. (1987). Land Ownership Security and Farm Investment in Thailand. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 69(2), 311–320.
GACSA. (2016). Compendium on Climate-Smart Agriculture & Extension. In Supporting agricultural extension towards Climate-Smart Agriculture An overview of existing tools (pp. 1–87). Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture. www.fao.org/gacsa/en/
Ghana Statistical Service. (2014). Ghana Living Standards Survey Round 6: Main Report.
Ghana Statistical Service. (2019). Nation Report: 207/2018 Ghana Census of Agriculture.
Goldstein, M. (2008). The Profits of Power : Land Rights and Agricultural Investment in Ghana Christopher Udry. 116(6).
Harvey, C. A., Chacón, M., Donatti, C. I., Garen, E., Hannah, L., Andrade, A., Bede, L., Brown, D., Calle, A., Chará, J., Clement, C., Gray, E., Hoang, M. H., Minang, P., Rodríguez, A. M., Seeberg-Elverfeldt, C., Semroc, B., Shames, S., Smukler, S., … Wollenberg, E. (2014). Climate-Smart Landscapes: Opportunities and Challenges for Integrating Adaptation and Mitigation in Tropical Agriculture. Conservation Letters, 7(2), 77–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12066
Issahaku, G., & Abdulai, A. (2019a). Adoption of climate-smart practices and its impact on farm performance and risk exposure among smallholder farmers in Ghana. Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8489.12357
Issahaku, G., & Abdulai, A. (2019b). Can Farm Households Improve Food and Nutrition Security through Adoption of Climate-smart Practices? Empirical Evidence from Northern Ghana. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/aepp/ppz002
Jolly, C. M., & Gadbois, M. (1996). The effect of animal traction on labour productivity and food self-sufficiency: The case of Mali. Agricultural Systems, 51(4), 453–467.
Kleemann, L., Abdulai, A., Mareike, B. (2014). Is Organic Farming Worth its Investment? The Adoption and Impact of Certified Pineapple Farming in Ghana. World Development, 64(1856), 79–92.
Kousar, R., Abdulai, A., & Society, A. E. (2014). Impact of non-farm work and land tenancy contracts on soil conservation measures Impact of non-farm work and land tenancy contracts on soil conservation measures. April. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.4505.9842
Ma, W., & Abdulai, A. (2016). Does cooperative membership improve household welfare? Evidence from apple farmers in China. Food Policy, 58(January), 94–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.12.002
Makate, C., Wang, R., Makate, M., & Mango, N. (2016). Crop diversification and livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe: adaptive management for environmental change. SpringerPlus, 5(1), 1–18.
Manda, J., Alene, A. D., Gardebroek, C., Kassie, M., & Tembo, G. (2016). Adoption and Impacts of Sustainable Agricultural Practices on Maize Yields and Incomes: Evidence from Rural Zambia. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 67(1), 130–153.
Manfred Zeller, Aliou Diagne, and C. M. (2001). Market access by smallholder farmers in Malawi: Implication for technology adoption in agricultural productivity and crop income. Journal of Agricultural Science, 19(35), 219–229.
Mango, N., Zamasiya, B., Makate, C., Nyikahadzoi, K., & Siziba, S. (2014). Factors influencing household food security among smallholder farmers in the Mudzi district of Zimbabwe. Development Southern Africa, 31(4), 625–640.
Maxwell, D., Vaitla, B., & Coates, J. (2014). How do indicators of household food insecurity measure up? An empirical comparison from Ethiopia. Food Policy, 47(4), 107–116.
Owusu, V., Abdulai, A., & Abdul-Rahman, S. (2011). Non-farm work and food security among farm households in Northern Ghana. Food Policy, 36(2), 108–118.
Pender, J. L., & Kerr, J. M. (1998). Determinants of farmers ’ indigenous soil and water conservation investments in semi -arid India. 19, 113–125.
Roodman, D. (2009). Working Paper Number 168 April 2009. 168.
Scharlemann, J. P. W., Brock, R. C., Balfour, N., Brown, C., Burgess, N. D., Guth, M. K., Ingram, D. J., Lane, R., Martin, J. G. C., Wicander, S., & Kapos, V. (2020). Towards understanding interactions between Sustainable Development Goals: the role of environment–human linkages. Sustainability Science, 15(6), 1573–1584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-020-00799-6
Shete, M., & Rutten, M. (2015). Impacts of large-scale farming on local communities ’ food security and income levels – Empirical evidence from Oromia Region , Ethiopia. Land Use Policy, 47(1), 282–292.
Sikka, A. K., Islam, A., & Rao, K. V. (2017). Climate-Smart Land and Water Management for Sustainable Agriculture. Irrigation and Drainage. https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2162
Simtowe, F., & Zeller, M. (2006). The Impact of Access to Credit on the Adoption of hybrid maize in Malawi: An Empirical Test of an Agricultural Household Model under credit market failure. January 2008.
Smith, L. C., & Wiesmann, D. (2007). Is Food Insecurity More Severe in South Asia or Sub-Saharan Africa ? August.
Solís, D., Bravo-Ureta, B. E., & Quiroga, R. E. (2009). Technical efficiency among peasant farmers participating in natural resource management programmes in Central America. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 60(1), 202–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-9552.2008.00173.x
Stamoulis, K., & Zezza, A. (2003). A Conceptual Framework for National Agricultural , Rural Development , and Food Security Strategies. ESA Working Paper, 03.
Teklewold, H., Gebrehiwot, T., & Bezabih, M. (2019). Climate smart agricultural practices and gender differentiated nutrition outcome : An empirical evidence from Ethiopia. World Development, 122, 38–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.05.010
Teklewold, H., Kassie, M., & Shiferaw, B. (2013). Adoption of multiple sustainable agricultural practices in rural Ethiopia. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 64(3), 597–623.
Tesfaye, W., Tirivayi, N., Blalock, G., Bageant, L., Boone, C., Mcbride, L., Mulu, Y., Gebremariam, G., Zewdie, T., Yitbarek, E., Kebede, K., Mccullough, E., Mali-, E., & Lybbert, T. (2020). Climate-Smart Innovations and Rural Poverty in Ethiopia: Exploring Impacts and Pathways. 00(00), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajae.12161
Thomson, A., & Metz, M. (1998). Implications of Economic Policy for Food Security: A Training Manual. Training Materials for Agricultural Planning 40. http://www.fao.org/3/X3936E/X3936E03.htm#self
Way, D. a, & Long, S. P. (2015). Climate-smart agriculture and forestry : maintaining plant productivity in a changing world while minimizing. Plant Cell and Environment, 38, 1683–1685. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce
WFP. (2009). Emergency Food Security Assessment Handbook. WFP, Rome, 296. https://doi.org/http://www.wfp.org/content/emergency-food-security-assessment-handbook
Zero Hunger Challenge. (2016). Partnering for Nourishing our People, Nurturing our Planet, Growing Prosperity, Harvesting Peace Transforming our Food Systems to Transform our World Background. Zero Hunger Challenge, 2(6), 1–5.
Published
2023-08-09
How to Cite
Abdallah, A.-H., & Ayamga, M. (2023, August 9). Impact of Rainwater Harvesting on Livelihood Outcomes in Northern Ghana. International Journal of Irrigation and Agricultural Development (IJIRAD), 7(1), 344-358. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.47762/2023.964x.122
Section
Irrigation Economics, Livelihoods and Sustainable Agricultural Development
